How To Properly Clean A Vintage Manual Typewriter

(Electro-)mechanical writing apparatus

Mechanical desktop typewriters, such every bit this Touchmaster Five, were long-time standards of regime agencies, newsrooms and offices

Video showing the performance of a typewriter

Disassembled parts of an Adler Favorit mechanical typewriter

A typewriter is a mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of keys, and each i causes a dissimilar unmarried character to be produced on newspaper by striking an inked ribbon selectively against the paper with a type element. At the cease of the nineteenth century, the term 'typewriter' was also applied to a person who used such a device.^[one]

The showtime commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874,^[2] but did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.^{[3] [ where? ]} The typewriter apace became an indispensable tool for practically all writing other than personal handwritten correspondence. It was widely used by professional writers, in offices, concern correspondence in private homes, and by students preparing written assignments.

Typewriters were a standard fixture in most offices up to the 1980s. Thereafter, they began to be largely supplanted past personal computers running word processing software. Withal, typewriters remain mutual in some parts of the world. In many Indian cities and towns, for example, typewriters are still used, especially in roadside and legal offices due to a lack of continuous, reliable electricity.^[4] The QWERTY keyboard layout, developed for typewriters in the 1870s, remains the standard for computer keyboards, although the origins of this layout remain in dispute, whether it was developed for mechanical reasons or to suit the operator, particularly Morse code operators ^[v]

Notable typewriter manufacturers included E. Remington and Sons, IBM, Godrej,^[6] Majestic Typewriter Company, Oliver Typewriter Company, Olivetti, Majestic Typewriter Company, Smith Corona, Underwood Typewriter Company, Adler Typewriter Visitor and Olympia-Werke [de].^[vii]

History [edit]

Peter Mitterhofer's typewriter epitome (1864)

Although many mod typewriters have one of several similar designs, their invention was incremental, developed by numerous inventors working independently or in competition with each other over a series of decades. Equally with the car, telephone, and telegraph, a number of people contributed insights and inventions that eventually resulted in e'er more than commercially successful instruments. Historians accept estimated that some course of typewriter was invented 52 times as thinkers tried to come upwardly with a workable design.^[8]

Some early on typing instruments include:

• In 1575, an Italian printmaker, Francesco Rampazetto, invented the scrittura tattile , a machine to impress letters in papers.^[9]
• In 1714, Henry Mill obtained a patent in Britain for a car that, from the patent, appears to have been similar to a typewriter. The patent shows that this machine was actually created: "[he] hath by his corking study and paines & expence invented and brought to perfection an bogus machine or method for impressing or transcribing of messages, one after another, as in writing, whereby all writing any may be engrossed in paper or parchment so neat and exact every bit not to be distinguished from impress; that the said machine or method may be of great use in settlements and public records, the impression beingness deeper and more than lasting than whatsoever other writing, and not to be erased or counterfeited without manifest discovery."^[x]
• In 1802, Italian Agostino Fantoni adult a detail typewriter to enable his blind sister to write.^[11]
• Between 1801 and 1808, Italian Pellegrino Turri invented a typewriter for his bullheaded friend Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano.^[12]
• In 1823, Italian Pietro Conti da Cilavegna invented a new model of typewriter, the tachigrafo , also known as tachitipo .^[xiii]
• In 1829, American William Austin Burt patented a automobile called the "Typographer" which, in mutual with many other early machines, is listed as the "get-go typewriter". The London Scientific discipline Museum describes it only as "the starting time writing mechanism whose invention was documented", but fifty-fifty that claim may be excessive, since Turri's invention pre-dates it.^[xiv]

By the mid-19th century, the increasing pace of business advice had created a need for mechanization of the writing process. Stenographers and telegraphers could take down information at rates upwards to 130 words per minute, whereas a writer with a pen was limited to a maximum of 30 words per infinitesimal (the 1853 speed tape).^[xv]

• American Charles Thurber developed multiple patents, of which his first in 1843 was developed equally an aid to the bullheaded, such as the 1845 Chirographer.^[16]
• In 1855, the Italian Giuseppe Ravizza created a image typewriter chosen Cembalo scrivano o macchina da scrivere a tasti ("Scribe harpsichord, or automobile for writing with keys"). '
• In 1861, Begetter Francisco João de Azevedo, a Brazilian priest, made his own typewriter with basic materials and tools, such every bit forest and knives. In that same year the Brazilian emperor D. Pedro II, presented a gilt medal to Father Azevedo for this invention. Many Brazilian people besides as the Brazilian federal regime recognize Fr. Azevedo as the inventor of the typewriter, a claim that has been the subject of some controversy.^[17]
• In 1865, John Jonathon Pratt, of Heart, Alabama (US), built a machine called the Pterotype which appeared in an 1867 Scientific American article^[18] and inspired other inventors.
• Betwixt 1864 and 1867, Peter Mitterhofer [de], a carpenter from South Tyrol (then part of Republic of austria) developed several models and a fully functioning prototype typewriter in 1867.^[nineteen]
• 1891 - Fitch typewriter - No.3287, type bar class, on base board, made by the Fitch Typewriter Company (United kingdom) in London. Operators of the early typewriters had to work "blind", the typed text only emerged after several lines had been completed. The Fitch was i of the first machines to allow prompt correction of mistakes – information technology was thought to exist the 2d design of car operating on the visible writing organization. On the Fitch typewriter, the type bars were positioned behind the newspaper and the writing area faced upwards so that the result could exist seen instantly. A curved frame kept the emerging paper from obscuring the keyboard, simply the Fitch was soon eclipsed by machines in which the paper could exist fed more conveniently at the rear.^[20]
• 1893 : This typewriter, patented past Mr J Gardner in 1893, was an attempt to reduce the size and price of such machines. Although it prints 84 symbols it has but 14 keys and two change-case keys. Several characters are indicated on each key and the grapheme printed is determined past the position of the case keys which control 6 case.^[21]
• 1897 - The "Underwood ane typewriter, 10" Pica, No.990" was adult. This was the start typewriter with a typing surface area fully visible to the typist until a key is struck. These features, copied by all subsequent typewriters, allowed the typist to run across and if necessary correct the typing as it proceeded. The mechanism was developed in the US past Franz X. Wagner from nearly 1892 and taken up, in 1895, by John T. Underwood (1857-1937), a producer of office supplies.^[22]

Hansen Writing Ball [edit]

In 1865, Rev. Rasmus Malling-Hansen of Denmark invented the Hansen Writing Ball, which went into commercial product in 1870 and was the kickoff commercially sold typewriter. It was a success in Europe and was reported as being used in offices on the European continent as late as 1909.^{[23] [24]}

The Hansen Writing Ball was produced with only upper-case characters. The Writing Ball was used as a template for inventor Frank Oasis Hall to create a derivative that would produce letter prints cheaper and faster.^{[25] [26] [27]}

Malling-Hansen developed his typewriter farther through the 1870s and 1880s and made many improvements, but the writing head remained the same. On the first model of the writing ball from 1870, the paper was attached to a cylinder inside a wooden box. In 1874, the cylinder was replaced by a carriage, moving beneath the writing head. And so, in 1875, the well-known "tall model" was patented, which was the first of the writing assurance that worked without electricity. Malling-Hansen attended the world exhibitions in Vienna in 1873 and Paris in 1878 and he received the first-prize for his invention at both exhibitions.^{[28] [29] [thirty]}

Sholes and Glidden typewriter [edit]

Image of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, the beginning commercially successful typewriter, and the first with a QWERTY keyboard (1873)

The first typewriter to be commercially successful was patented in 1868 by Americans Christopher Latham Sholes, Frank Haven Hall, Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,^[31] although Sholes soon disowned the machine and refused to apply or even recommend it.^[32] The working prototype was fabricated by clock-maker and machinist Matthias Schwalbach.^[33] Hall, Glidden and Soule sold their shares in the patent (US 79,265) to Densmore and Sholes,^[34] who made an agreement with E. Remington and Sons (and then famous as a manufacturer of sewing machines) to commercialize the car as the Sholes and Glidden Blazon-Writer.^[33] This was the origin of the term typewriter. Remington began product of its first typewriter on March ane, 1873, in Ilion, New York. It had a QWERTY keyboard layout, which, considering of the car's success, was slowly adopted past other typewriter manufacturers. As with most other early typewriters, because the typebars strike upwards, the typist could not run across the characters every bit they were typed.^[34]

Index typewriter [edit]

A Mignon Model 4 index typewriter from 1924

The index typewriter came into the market in the early 1880s,^[35]

The index typewriter was briefly popular in niche markets. Although they were slower than keyboard blazon machines they were mechanically simpler and lighter, they were therefore marketed as being suitable for travellers, and because they could be produced more than cheaply than keyboard machines, as budget machines for users who needed to produce minor quantities of typed correspondence.^[35] For example, the Simplex Typewriter Company fabricated index typewriters that cost ane/40th the price of a Remington typewriter.^[36]

The index typewriter's niche entreatment however before long disappeared, equally on the one manus new keyboard typewriters became lighter and more portable and on the other refurbished 2d paw machines began to go bachelor.^[35] The final widely available western index machine was the Mignon typewriter produced by AEG which was produced until 1934. Considered i of the very all-time of the index typewriters, role of the Mignon's popularity was that it featured both interchangeable indexes and type,^[37] allowing the employ of dissimilar fonts and graphic symbol sets, something very few keyboard machines immune and only at considerable added cost.^[37]

Embossing tape label makers are the nearly mutual index typewriters today, and mayhap the almost common typewriters of whatsoever kind still beingness manufactured.^[36]

The platen was mounted on a carriage that moved horizontally to the left, automatically advancing the typing position, after each character was typed. The carriage-return lever at the far left was so pressed to the right to return the carriage to its starting position and rotating the platen to advance the paper vertically. A small bell was struck a few characters earlier the right hand margin was reached to warn the operator to consummate the word and and then utilize the carriage-return lever.^[38]

Frontstriking [edit]

1 of the first was the Daugherty Visible, introduced in 1893, which also introduced the four-banking concern keyboard that became standard, although the Underwood which came out ii years later was the beginning major typewriter with these features.^{[39] [40]}

Color [edit]

Some ribbons were inked in black and reddish stripes, each being half the width and running the entire length of the ribbon. A lever on most machines allowed switching between colors, which was useful for accounting entries where negative amounts were highlighted in carmine. The blood-red color was likewise used on some selected characters in running text, for emphasis. When a typewriter had this facility, it could nevertheless exist fitted with a solid black ribbon; the lever was then used to switch to fresh ribbon when the beginning stripe ran out of ink. Some typewriters also had a third position which stopped the ribbon being struck at all. This enabled the keys to hit the newspaper unobstructed, and was used for cut stencils for stencil duplicators (aka mimeograph machines).^[41]

"Noiseless" designs [edit]

Noiseless portables sold well in the 1930s and 1940s, and noiseless standards continued to be manufactured until the 1960s.^[42]

Early on electric models [edit]

Some electrical typewriters were patented in the 19th century, but the kickoff machine known to be produced in series is the Cahill of 1900.^[43]

Some other electric typewriter was produced by the Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company, of Stamford, Connecticut, in 1902. Like the manual Blickensderfer typewriters, it used a cylindrical typewheel rather than private typebars. The machine was produced in several variants simply apparently it was not a commercial success, for reasons that are unclear.^[44]

The next step in the evolution of the electrical typewriter came in 1910, when Charles and Howard Krum filed a patent for the first applied teletypewriter.^[45] The Krums' car, named the Morkrum Press Telegraph, used a typewheel rather than individual typebars. This machine was used for the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Visitor lines between Boston and New York Metropolis in 1910.^[46]

In 1928, Delco, a division of General Motors, purchased Northeast Electrical, and the typewriter business was spun off as Electromatic Typewriters, Inc. In 1933, Electromatic was acquired by IBM, which then spent $i 1000000 on a redesign of the Electromatic Typewriter, launching the IBM Electrical Typewriter Model 01.^[47]

In 1931, an electric typewriter was introduced by Varityper Corporation. Information technology was chosen the Varityper, because a narrow cylinder-like cycle could be replaced to change the font.^[48]

In 1941, IBM appear the Electromatic Model 04 electrical typewriter, featuring the revolutionary concept of proportional spacing. By assigning varied rather than uniform spacing to different sized characters, the Type 4 recreated the appearance of a typeset page, an effect that was farther enhanced by including the 1937 innovation of carbon-film ribbons that produced clearer, sharper words on the page.^[49]

IBM Selectric [edit]

IBM Selectric Ii (dual Latin/Hebrew typeball and keyboard)

Selectric 2 dual Latin/Hebrew Hadar typeball

Replaceable IBM typeballs with clip

Due to the concrete similarity, the typeball was sometimes referred to as a "golfball".^[l]

The IBM Selectric became a commercial success, dominating the office typewriter market for at to the lowest degree two decades.^[50]

Later models of IBM Executives and Selectrics replaced inked textile ribbons with "carbon film" ribbons that had a dry blackness or colored powder on a clear plastic tape. These could be used only once, but later models used a cartridge that was elementary to replace. A side consequence of this applied science was that the text typed on the auto could be easily read from the used ribbon, raising problems where the machines were used for preparing classified documents (ribbons had to be deemed for to ensure that typists did not carry them from the facility).^[51]

A variation known as "Correcting Selectrics" introduced a correction feature, where a sticky tape in forepart of the carbon film ribbon could remove the black-powdered image of a typed character, eliminating the need for little bottles of white dab-on correction fluid and for difficult erasers that could tear the newspaper. These machines also introduced selectable "pitch" and then that the typewriter could be switched between pica blazon (ten characters per inch) and elite type (12 per inch), even within ane document. Even so, all Selectrics were monospaced—each character and letterspace was allotted the aforementioned width on the page, from a capital "W" to a period. Although IBM had produced a successful typebar-based machine with v levels of proportional spacing, called the IBM Executive.^[52]

Later electric models [edit]

Some of IBM'south advances were later adopted in less expensive machines from competitors. For instance, Smith-Corona electrical typewriters introduced in 1973 switched to interchangeable Coronamatic (SCM-patented) ribbon cartridges.^[53]

Electronic typewriters [edit]

The final major development of the typewriter was the electronic typewriter. Most of these replaced the typeball with a plastic or metallic daisy wheel machinery (a disk with the letters molded on the outside edge of the "petals"). The daisy wheel concept offset emerged in printers developed by Diablo Systems in the 1970s. The first electronic daisywheel typewriter marketed in the earth (in 1976) is the Olivetti Tes 501, and subsequently in 1978, the Olivetti ET101 (with function display) and Olivetti TES 401 (with text display and floppy disk for memory storage). This has allowed Olivetti to maintain the world record in the design of electronic typewriters, proposing increasingly avant-garde and performing models in the following years.^[54]

Unlike the Selectrics and before models, these actually were "electronic" and relied on integrated circuits and electromechanical components. These typewriters were sometimes chosen display typewriters,^[55] dedicated word processors or give-and-take-processing typewriters, though the latter term was also ofttimes practical to less sophisticated machines that featured only a tiny, sometimes just unmarried-row brandish. Sophisticated models were also called discussion processors, though today that term about always denotes a type of software program. Manufacturers of such machines included Olivetti (TES501, first totally electronic Olivetti word processor with daisywheel and floppy disk in 1976; TES621 in 1979 etc.), Blood brother (Brother WP1 and WP500 etc., where WP stood for word processor), Canon (Canon Cat), Smith-Corona (PWP, i.e. Personal Give-and-take Processor line)^[56] and Philips/Magnavox (VideoWriter).

• 

  Electronic typewriter – the final stage in typewriter development. A 1989 Canon Typestar 110

• 

  The Brother WP1, an electronic typewriter complete with a small screen and a floppy deejay reader

Decline [edit]

The pace of change was so rapid that it was common for clerical staff to have to learn several new systems, ane after the other, in just a few years.^[57] While such rapid modify is commonplace today, and is taken for granted, this was non always so; in fact, typewriting applied science changed very little in its offset eighty or xc years.^[58]

The increasing authority of personal computers, desktop publishing, the introduction of low-cost, truly high-quality light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation and inkjet printer technologies, and the pervasive apply of spider web publishing, e-mail and other electronic communication techniques take largely replaced typewriters in the United states. However, every bit of 2009^[update], typewriters connected to exist used by a number of government agencies and other institutions in the US, where they are primarily used to fill preprinted forms. Co-ordinate to a Boston typewriter repairman quoted by The Boston Globe, "Every motherhood ward has a typewriter, likewise as funeral homes".^[59]

A rather specialized market for typewriters exists due to the regulations of many correctional systems in the Us, where prisoners are prohibited from having computers or telecommunication equipment, but are immune to own typewriters. The Swintec corporation (headquartered in Moonachie, New Bailiwick of jersey), which, equally of 2011, however produced typewriters at its overseas factories (in Japan, Indonesia, and/or Malaysia), manufactures a variety of typewriters for employ in prisons, made of clear plastic (to arrive harder for prisoners to hibernate prohibited items inside it). As of 2011, the visitor had contracts with prisons in 43 US states.^{[60] [61]}

In April 2011, Godrej and Boyce, a Mumbai-based manufacturer of mechanical typewriters, closed its doors, leading to a flurry of news reports that the "world's concluding typewriter factory" had close downwards.^[62] The reports were apace contested, with opinions settling to agree that it was indeed the world's concluding producer of manual typewriters.^{[63] [64] [65] [66]}

In Nov 2012, Brother's UK manufactory manufactured what information technology claimed to be the last typewriter ever made in the UK; the typewriter was donated to the London Science Museum.^[67]

Russian typewriters employ Cyrillic, which has made the ongoing Azerbaijani cluster reconversion from Cyrillic to Latin alphabet more than hard. In 1997, the government of Turkey offered to donate western typewriters to the Commonwealth of Republic of azerbaijan in exchange for more zealous and sectional promotion of the Latin alphabet for the Azerbaijani language; this offer, all the same, was declined.^[68]

In Latin America and Africa, mechanical typewriters are withal common considering they can be used without electrical power. In Latin America, the typewriters used are well-nigh frequently Brazilian models; Brazil continues to produce mechanical (Facit) and electronic (Olivetti) typewriters to the present day.^[69]

The early 21st century saw revival of involvement in typewriters amid certain subcultures, including makers, steampunks, hipsters, and street poets.^[seventy]

Correction technologies [edit]

According to the standards taught in secretarial schools in the mid-20th century, a business letter of the alphabet was supposed to have no mistakes and no visible corrections.^[71]

Correction fluid [edit]

A different fluid was available for correcting stencils. It sealed up the stencil ready for retyping but did not effort to color match.^[72]

Legacy [edit]

Keyboard layouts [edit]

The "QWERTY" layout of typewriter keys became a de facto standard and continues to be used long after the reasons for its adoption (including reduction of key/lever entanglements) have ceased to apply.

QWERTY [edit]

The 1874 Sholes & Glidden typewriters established the "QWERTY" layout for the letter keys. During the period in which Sholes and his colleagues were experimenting with this invention, other keyboard arrangements were apparently tried, but these are poorly documented.^[73]

The QWERTY layout is not the nearly efficient layout possible for the English language. Touch-typists are required to move their fingers between rows to type the most mutual letters. Although the QWERTY keyboard was the near commonly used layout in typewriters, a better, less strenuous keyboard was being searched for throughout the tardily 1900s.^[74]

One pop but unverified^[5] explanation for the QWERTY arrangement is that it was designed to reduce the likelihood of internal clashing of typebars by placing commonly used combinations of messages farther from each other inside the machine.^[75]

Other layouts [edit]

A number of radically different layouts such as Dvorak accept been proposed to reduce the perceived inefficiencies of QWERTY, only none accept been able to displace the QWERTY layout; their proponents claim considerable advantages, but so far none has been widely used. The Blickensderfer typewriter with its DHIATENSOR layout may have possibly been the first attempt at optimizing the keyboard layout for efficiency advantages.^[76]

On modernistic keyboards, the exclamation point is the shifted character on the 1 central, considering these were the last characters to become "standard" on keyboards. Belongings the spacebar downwardly unremarkably suspended the carriage advance mechanism (a then-called "dead key" feature), assuasive 1 to superimpose multiple keystrikes on a single location. The ¢ symbol (significant cents) was located to a higher place the number 6 on American electric typewriters, whereas ANSI-INCITS-standard estimator keyboards have ^ instead.^[77]

Typewriter conventions [edit]

A number of typographical conventions stem from the typewriter's characteristics and limitations. For example, the QWERTY keyboard typewriter did non include keys for the en nuance and the em dash. To overcome this limitation, users typically typed more than one next hyphen to guess these symbols.^[78] This typewriter convention is notwithstanding sometimes used today, fifty-fifty though mod figurer word processing applications can input the correct en and em dashes for each font blazon.^[79]

Other examples of typewriter practices that are sometimes however used in desktop publishing systems include inserting a double space between sentences,^{[eighty] [81]} and the utilize of the typewriter apostrophe, ', and straight quotes, ", as quotation marks and prime marks.^[82] The do of underlining text in place of italics and the use of all capitals to provide emphasis are additional examples of typographical conventions that derived from the limitations of the typewriter keyboard that notwithstanding comport on today.^[83]

Many older typewriters did not include a separate key for the numeral i or the assertion point !, and some even older ones also lacked the numeral zero, 0. Typists who trained on these machines learned the addiction of using the lowercase letter l ("ell") for the digit i, and the majuscule O ("oh") for the zero. A cents symbol, ¢ was created by combining (over-striking) a lower case c with a slash character (typing c, so backspace, then /). Similarly, the exclamation point was created by combining an apostrophe and a period ('+. ≈!).^[84]

[edit]

Humorous "Exit! Tin can't you see I'thou busy" postcard (1900s)

When Remington started marketing typewriters, the visitor assumed the machine would not be used for composing but for transcribing dictation, and that the person typing would be a woman. The 1800s Sholes and Glidden typewriter had floral ornamentation on the case.^[85]

During Globe Wars I and 2, increasing numbers of women were entering the workforce. In the U.s., women often started in the professional workplace equally typists. Questions virtually morals made a salacious businessman making sexual advances to a female typist into a cliché of role life, appearing in vaudeville and movies. Being a typist was considered the right choice for a "good girl", meaning women who present themselves every bit beingness chaste and having good carry.^[86] According to the 1900 census, 94.9% of stenographers and typists were unmarried women.^[87]

The "Tijuana bibles" – adult comic books produced in Mexico for the American market, starting in the 1930s – often featured women typists. In one panel, a man of affairs in a three-piece suit, ogling his secretary'due south thigh, says, "Miss Higby, are yous ready for—ahem!—er—dictation?"^[42]

The typewriter was a useful machine during the censorship era of the Soviet government, starting during the Russian Civil State of war (1917–1922). Samizdat was a form of self-publication used when the regime was censoring what literature the public could admission. The Soviet authorities signed a Prescript on Press which prohibited the publishing of any written piece of work that had not been previously reviewed and approved.^[88] This work was copied by hand, most often on typewriters.^[89] There was a new law in 1983 that required any possessor of a typewriter needed to become police permission to purchase or continue, they would have to register a type sample of messages and numbers to ensure that any illegal literature typed with it could be traced back to its source.^[90] The typewriter became increasingly popular as the interest in prohibited books grew.^[91]

Writers with notable associations with typewriters [edit]

Early on adopters [edit]

• Henry James dictated to a typist.^[42]
• Mark Twain claimed in his autobiography that he was the first important writer to present a publisher with a typewritten manuscript, for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). Research showed that Twain's retentiveness was incorrect and that the first book submitted in typed class was Life on the Mississippi (1883, besides by Twain).^[92]

Others [edit]

• William S. Burroughs wrote in some of his novels—and maybe believed—that "a car he called the 'Soft Typewriter' was writing our lives, and our books, into beingness", according to a volume review in The New Yorker. In the motion-picture show accommodation of his novel Naked Luncheon, his typewriter is a living, insect-like entity (voiced past North American actor Peter Boretski) and actually dictates the book to him.^[93]
• J. R. R. Tolkien was likewise accustomed to typing from awkward positions: "balancing his typewriter on his attic bed, because there was no room on his desk-bound".^[94]
• Jack Kerouac, a fast typist at 100 words per minute, typed On the Road on a roll of newspaper and then he would not be interrupted by having to alter the paper. Inside ii weeks of starting to write On the Road, Kerouac had one unmarried-spaced paragraph, 120 anxiety long. Some scholars say the scroll was shelf paper; others argue it was a Thermal-fax roll; some other theory is that the scroll consisted of sheets of builder's paper taped together.^[42] Kerouac himself stated that he used 100 ft rolls of teletype paper.^[95]
• Another fast typist of the Vanquish Generation was Richard Brautigan, who said that he idea out the plots of his books in detail beforehand, then typed them out at speeds budgeted xc to 100 words a infinitesimal.^[96]
• Don Marquis purposely used the limitations of a typewriter (or more than precisely, a particular typist) in his archy and mehitabel series of newspaper columns, which were later compiled into a series of books. According to his literary conceit, a cockroach named "Archy" was a reincarnated free-poesy poet, who would type articles overnight by jumping onto the keys of a transmission typewriter. The writings were typed completely in lower case, because of the cockroach'due south inability to generate the heavy strength needed to operate the shift key. The lone exception is the poem "CAPITALS AT LAST" from archys life of mehitabel, written in 1933.
• Writer Ray Bradbury used a typewriter for rent at the library to write his work known as Fahrenheit 451, which was published in 1953.^[97]

Late users [edit]

• Andy Rooney and William F. Buckley Jr. (1982) were among many writers who were very reluctant to switch from typewriters to computers.
• Richard Polt, a philosophy professor at Xavier University in Cincinnati who collects typewriters, edits ETCetera, a quarterly mag most historic writing machines, and is the author of the volume The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist'southward Companion for the 21st Century.^{[98] [ full citation needed ]}
• William Gibson used a Hermes 2000 model manual typewriter to write Neuromancer and half of Count Goose egg before a mechanical failure and lack of replacement parts forced him to upgrade to an Apple IIc computer.^[99]
• Harlan Ellison used typewriters for his entire career, and when he was no longer able to have them repaired, learned to do it himself; he repeatedly stated his belief that computers are bad for writing, maintaining that "Art is non supposed to be easier!"^[100]
• Author Cormac McCarthy continues to write his novels on an Olivetti Lettera 32 typewriter to the present twenty-four hour period. In 2009, the Lettera he obtained from a pawn shop in 1963, on which near all his novels and screenplays have been written, was auctioned for charity at Christie'south for US$254,500;^[101] McCarthy obtained an identical replacement for $xx to continue writing on.^{[102] [103]}
• Will Self explains why he uses a manual typewriter: "I think the estimator user does their thinking on the screen, and the non-estimator user is compelled, because he or she has to retype a whole text, to do a lot more thinking in the head."^[104]
• Ted Kaczynski (the "Unabomber") infamously used 2 old transmission typewriters to write his polemic essays and messages.^[103]
• Actor Tom Hanks uses and collects manual typewriters.^{[105] [103]}

Typewriters in popular civilisation [edit]

In music [edit]

• Erik Satie's 1917 score for the ballet Parade includes a "Mach. à écrire" every bit a percussion instrument, along with (elsewhere) a roulette cycle and a pistol.^[106]
• The composer Leroy Anderson wrote The Typewriter (1950) for orchestra and typewriter, and it has since been used as the theme for numerous radio programs. The solo instrument is a real typewriter played by a percussionist. The slice was later on made famous by comedian Jerry Lewis as part of his regular routine both on screen and stage, most notably in the 1963 picture Who's Minding the Store?.
• The Boston Typewriter Orchestra (BTO) has performed at numerous fine art festivals, clubs, and parties since 2004.^{[107] [108]}
• South Korean improviser Ryu Hankil frequently performs on typewriters, most prominently in his 2009 album Condign Typewriter.^[109]

Other [edit]

• The 2012 French one-act flick Populaire, starring Romain Duris and Déborah François, centers on a young secretary in the 1950s striving to win typewriting speed competitions.^[110]
• The manga and anime Violet Evergarden follows a disabled war veteran who learns to type considering her handwriting has been impaired, and soon she becomes a popular typist.

Forensic examination [edit]

Typewritten documents may be examined past forensic certificate examiners. This is done primarily to determine 1) the make and/or model of the typewriter used to produce a document, or two) whether or not a item doubtable typewriter might have been used to produce a document.^[111]

The determination of a make and/or model of typewriter is a 'classification' problem and several systems accept been adult for this purpose.^[111] These include the original Haas Typewriter Atlases (Pica version)^[112] and (Non-Pica version)^[113] and the Type system adult by Dr. Philip Bouffard,^[114] the Royal Canadian Mounted Police force's Termatrex Typewriter nomenclature system,^[115] and Interpol's typewriter classification system,^[116] among others.^[111]

The earliest reference in fictional literature to the potential identification of a typewriter as having produced a document was by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote the Sherlock Holmes brusk story "A Case of Identity" in 1891.^[117] In non-fiction, the offset document examiner^[117] to describe how a typewriter might be identified was William Eastward. Hagan who wrote, in 1894, "All typewriter machines, fifty-fifty when using the same kind of blazon, become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them".^[118] Other early discussions of the topic were provided past A. S. Osborn in his 1908 treatise, Typewriting as Evidence,^[119] and again in his 1929 textbook, Questioned Documents.^[120] A modern description of the examination procedure is laid out in ASTM Standard E2494-08 (Standard Guide for Examination of Typewritten Items).^[121]

Typewriter examination was used in the Leopold and Loeb and Alger Hiss cases. In the Eastern Bloc, typewriters (together with press presses, copy machines, and later computer printers) were a controlled technology, with clandestine law in charge of maintaining files of the typewriters and their owners. In the Soviet Matrimony, the Start Department of each arrangement sent information on organization's typewriters to the KGB. This posed a significant risk for dissidents and samizdat authors. In Romania, according to State Quango Decree No. 98 of March 28, 1983, owning a typewriter, both by businesses or by private persons, was subject to an approving given by the local police force government. People previously convicted of any law-breaking or those who because of their behaviour were considered to be "a danger to public social club or to the security of the land" were refused approving. In addition, one time a year, typewriter owners had to take the typewriter to the local constabulary station, where they would be asked to blazon a sample of all the typewriter's characters. It was likewise forbidden to borrow, lend, or repair typewriters other than at the places that had been authorized by the constabulary.^[122]

Collections [edit]

A number of public and private collections of typewriters exist around the world:^[123]

• Schreibmaschinenmuseum Peter Mitterhofer (Parcines, Italian republic)^[124]
• Museo della Macchina da Scrivere (Milan, Italia)^[125]
• Martin Howard Drove of Early Typewriters (Toronto, Canada)^[126]
• Liverpool Typewriter Museum (Liverpool, England)
• Chestnut Ridge Typewriter Museum (Fairmont, West Virginia, US)
• Technical Museum of the Empordà (Figueres, Girona, Spain)
• Musée de la car à écrire (Lausanne, Switzerland)^[127]
• Lu Hanbin Typewriter Museum Shanghai (Shanghai, China)
• Wattens Typewriter Museum (Wattens, Austria)
• German Typewriter Museum (Bayreuth, Germany)
• Tayfun Talipoğlu Typewriter Museum (Odunpazarı, Eskişehir, Turkey)

Several online-only virtual museums collect and brandish information nearly typewriters and their history:

• Virtual Typewriter Museum^[128]
• Chuck & Rich's Antique Typewriter Website
• Mr. Martin's Typewriter Museum^[129]

Gallery [edit]

• 

  Peter Mitterhofer 1864 typewriter

• 

  Hammond 1B typewriter, invented 1870s, manufactured 1881

• 

  Hammond 1B, equally used past a newspaper office in Saskatoon around 1910

• 

  U.S. Army Quartermaster soldiers in typewriter repair shop, Tours, France, 1919

• 

  Typebars in a 1920s typewriter

• 

• 

  1920s Underwood typewriter with Swedish layout

• 

  Chinese typewriter at Deutsches Technikmuseum

• 

  typewriter robotron South 1001 from VEB Robotron-Elektronik at the GDR, this sample is endemic by the MEK

• 

  An Olivetti Studio 45 Typewriter

See also [edit]

• Chorded keyboard
• Computer keyboard
• Duplicating machines
• Friden Flexowriter
• JOHNNIAC
• Letter (alphabet)
• Project keyboard
• Teletype Model 33
• Typeface
• Typescript
• Typewriter desk
• UNIVAC 1102

Notes [edit]

References [edit]

1. ^ "typewriter (2)". Oxford English Lexicon. Vol. 18 (2nd ed.). Oxford Academy Press. 1989. p. 789.
2. ^ Cortada, James W. (2015). Earlier the Calculator: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956. Princeton Academy Press. p. 38. ISBN978-1-4008-7276-3. Archived from the original on 2018-06-26.
3. ^ "Typewriters". world wide web.officemuseum.com. Archived from the original on December 27, 2016.
4. ^ "Typewriters, Writing a Social History of Urban India". The Wire. Retrieved eighteen March 2019.
5. ^ ^{a b} Stamp, Jimmy. "Fact of Fiction? The Fable of the QWERTY Keyboard". Smithsonian.
6. ^ "The archives times – March – April 2013 – Lost and found, a 1984 photo revives those times" (PDF). Godrej archives. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
7. ^ Silverish Reed"From behind the scenes – Godrej Prima and the Stenographers handbook" (PDF). world wide web.archives.godrej.com. Godrej archives. Retrieved xviii March 2019.
8. ^ Acocella, Joan (April 9, 2007). "The Typing Life: How writers used to write". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013.
9. ^ "Scrittura". museocasertaolivetti.altervista.org (in Italian). Museo dinamico della tecnologia Adriano Olivetti. Archived from the original on 2017-06-21. Retrieved 2017-07-21 .
10. ^ "Henry Mill Patents". Todayinsci.com. Archived from the original on 2012-11-28. Retrieved 2012-03-thirty .
11. ^ "History of Computers and Computing, Nascency of the modernistic computer, The bases of digital computers, typewriter and computer keyboard". history-calculator.com. Archived from the original on 2016-09-05. Retrieved 2016-09-nineteen .
12. ^ "Italian Inventors and their Inventions". YourGuideToItaly.com. 2010. Retrieved 2011-01-25 .
13. ^ Gianfrancesco Rambelli (1844). Intorno invenzioni e scoperte italiane (in Italian). Modena: Tipografia Vincenzi e Rossi. p. 150.
14. ^ William Austin Burt's Typographer. Science Museum. 1829.
15. ^ Utterback, James 1000. Utterback (1996). Mastering The Dynamics Of Innovation, 2nd Ed. Harvard Business Press. ISBN978-0-87584-740-5.
16. ^ "Thurber's Chirographer – Scientific American". todayinsci.com. Archived from the original on 2015-03-27. Retrieved 2017-01-20 .
17. ^ Adler, Michael (1997). Antique typewriters: from Creed to QWERTY. Atglen, Pa.: Schiffer Pub. ISBN978-0-7643-0132-2.
18. ^ "Blazon Writing Machine". Scientific American. New. Vol. 17, no. ane. New York. 1867-07-06. p. 3. Retrieved 2009-01-14 .
19. ^ "This is How Some of the Globe's Familiar Inventions Looked at the Fourth dimension of Nascence". Popular Mechanics. May 1929. p. 751.
20. ^ "Fitch typewriter, 1891 | Science Museum Grouping Collection". collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk . Retrieved 2021-11-23 .
21. ^ "Gardner typewriter, c. 1893". drove.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk. Science Museum Grouping Drove. Retrieved 2021-xi-23 .
22. ^ "Underwood ane Typewriter, 1897 | Scientific discipline Museum Group Collection". collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland . Retrieved 2021-11-22 .
23. ^ Mares, G. C. (1909). The History of the Typewriter. London. p. 230.
24. ^ "Early Role Museum". Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved i December 2013.
25. ^ Larson, Erik (2004). The Devil in the White Metropolis: A Saga of Magic and Murder at the Fair that Inverse America. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 291. ISBN978-1-4000-7631-iv. Archived from the original on 2018-06-26.
26. ^ Hendrickson, Walter B. (1956). "The Three Lives of Frank H. Hall" (PDF). Journal of the Illinois State Historical Club. Academy of Illinois Press. 49 (3). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-08-06.
27. ^ Bearding (24 Apr 2011). "Hall Braille Writer". American Press Business firm for the Bullheaded, Inc. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
28. ^ Otto Burghagen (1898). Die Schreibmaschine. Illustrierte Beschreibung aller gangbaren Schreibmaschinen nebst gründlicher Anleitung zum Arbeiten auf sämtlichen Systemen.
29. ^ Dieter Eberwein. Nietzsches Schreibkugel. Ein Blick auf Nietzsches Schreibmaschinenzeit durch die Restauration der Schreibkugel. Eberwein-Typoskriptverlag. Schauenburg 2005.
30. ^ Johanne Agerskov (1925). Hvem er Skrivekuglens Opfinder? .
31. ^ "Drawing for a Typewriter". docsteach.org. Records of the Patent and Trademark Function, Record Group 241. June 23, 1868.
32. ^ Jocher, Katharine; Bliven, Bruce (1954). "Reviewed work: The Typewriter and the Men Who Made Information technology., Richard N. Electric current; the Wonderful Writing Machine., Bruce Bliven, Jr". Social Forces. 33 (two): 197–198. doi:10.2307/2573562. JSTOR 2573562.
33. ^ ^{a b} "Get-go Practical Typewriter". Wisconsin Historical Club. March 22, 2007. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
34. ^ ^{a b} Current, Richard N. (1949). "The Original Typewriter Enterprise 1867-1873". The Wisconsin Magazine of History. 32 (4): 391–407. JSTOR 4632060. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
35. ^ ^{a b c} "Antique Index Typewriters". Early Part Museum. Archived from the original on 2 July 2016. Retrieved thirteen March 2017.
36. ^ ^{a b} Richard Polt. "The Classic Typewriter Folio". "Simplex".
37. ^ ^{a b} "The Mignon 2". The Virtual Typewriter Museum. Archived from the original on 3 Oct 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
38. ^ "The Remington Blazon-Writing Automobile". Nature. 14 (342): 43–44. 1876. Bibcode:1876Natur..14...43.. doi:x.1038/014043a0.
39. ^ Robert, Paul. "Daugherty". Collection. The Virtual Typewriter Museum. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved July 5, 2012.
40. ^ Seaver, Alan (2011). "Daugherty Visible". Machines of Loving Grace website. Alan Seaver. Archived from the original on May 11, 2013. Retrieved July five, 2012.
41. ^ "How to prepare a mimeograph stencil by using a typewriter". LinguaLinks Library. SIL International. Archived from the original on 2012-x-16. Retrieved 2011-05-10 .
42. ^ ^{a b c d} Newyorker.com Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine Acocella, Joan, "The Typing Life: How writers used to write", The New Yorker, April 9, 2007, a review of The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting (Cornell) 2007, by Darren Wershler-Henry
43. ^ "Bert Kerschbaumer, "The Cahill Electrical Typewriters," ETCetera No. 100 (Dec 2012)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-07-30.
44. ^ "P. Robert Aubert, "The Last Service Call," ETCetera No. 33(December 1995)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-07-thirty.
45. ^ "U.South. Patent ane,286,351 filed in May, 1910, and issued in December, 1918". Archived from the original on 2016-12-25. Retrieved 2011-09-16 .
46. ^ Colin Hempstead, William E. Worthington (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th Century Technology. Routledge. p. 605. ISBN978-1-57958-464-ane.
47. ^ "IBM Electric Typewriter Model 01". 03.ibm.com. 23 January 2003. Archived from the original on 2013-05-26. Retrieved 2013-09-12 .
48. ^ "Irresolute the Blazon of Typewriter Made Easy". Pop Mechanics: 83. July 1931. Archived from the original on 2018-06-26.
49. ^ "IBM Typewriter Milestones". IBM Archives. 23 Jan 2003. Archived from the original on 2017-06-27.
50. ^ ^{a b} IBM (vii March 2012). "The Selectric Typewriter". Icons of Progress . Retrieved 20 January 2020.
51. ^ Ellen, David (2005). Scientific Exam of Documents. CRC Press. pp. 106–107. ISBN978-0-8493-3925-7.
52. ^ Wershler-Henry, Darren (2005). The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting . Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. p. 254. ISBN978-0-8014-4586-vi.
53. ^ "The History of Smith Corona | Since 1877 to Present". Archived from the original on 2017-03-22. Retrieved 2017-03-12 .
54. ^ Giuseppe Silmo (2007). Yard.P.Due south. Macchine per scrivere Olivetti e not solo. Fondazione Natale Capellaro. p. 74.
55. ^ The states patent 4620808, "Brandish typewriter", issued 1986-xi-04
56. ^ "Smith-Corona". Mindmachine.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-05-28. Retrieved 2013-09-12 .
57. ^ Davies, Margery W. (2004-01-fourteen). "WOMEN CLERICAL WORKERS AND THE TYPEWRITER: THE WRITING Machine". In Kramarae, Cheris (ed.). Technology and Women's Voices. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203221938. ISBN978-0-203-22193-8.
58. ^ AO (2020-01-29). "The Gild-Irresolute Invention of Typewriters". History Things . Retrieved 2021-05-18 .
59. ^ Keene, Cindy Atoji (2009-02-01). "Typewriters band on in the fringes". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2013-08-26.
60. ^ "The expiry of the typewriter? Don't write information technology off yet". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. 2011-04-27. Archived from the original on 2011-05-03. Retrieved 2012-03-30 .
61. ^ "Texas inmates have clear choice in typewriters". Fixed-mobile-convergence.tmcnet.com. 2011-06-15. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2012-03-thirty .
62. ^ CBC News (April 26, 2011). "Earth's last typewriter plant stops production". Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved Apr 27, 2011. A previous version of this story did not clearly state that Godrej & Boyce appears to be the globe's last maker of mechanical typewriters, which operate solely on human being power. Numerous other manufacturers proceed to brand several types of electrical typewriters.
63. ^ "Wite Out? World's 'final typewriter manufactory' apparently isn't". Content.usatoday.com. 2011-04-26. Archived from the original on 2012-07-07. Retrieved 2012-03-30 .
64. ^ Romenesko, Jim (2011-04-26). "Reports of typewriter'south decease are premature". Poynter.org. Archived from the original on 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2012-03-30 .
65. ^ Memmott, Marker (2011-04-26). "Has The Terminal Typewriter Manufactory Airtight? Not Really". Npr.org. Archived from the original on 2012-03-xiii. Retrieved 2012-03-30 .
66. ^ Rohrlich, Justin (2011-04-25). "Contrary to Reports, Typewriter Industry "Far From Dead"". Archived from the original on 2016-02-24.
67. ^ "United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's 'last typewriter' produced". BBC. 2012-11-20. Archived from the original on 2013-12-19. Retrieved 2013-09-12 .
68. ^ Cornell, Svante (2005). Small-scale Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Disharmonize in the Caucasus. Taylor & Francis. p. 283. ISBN9781135796693.
69. ^ "Ainda se fabricam máquinas de escrever? (Are typewriters still manufactured?)". Mundoestranho.abril.com.br. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2012-03-xxx .
70. ^ Richard Polt, The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist'due south Companion for the 21st Century (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 2015)
71. ^ Peril, Lynn (2011). Swimming in the steno puddle : a retro guide to making it in the office. W.W. Norton & Co. p. 232. OCLC 1036875148.
72. ^ "How to right a mimeograph stencil". LinguaLinks Library. SIL International. Archived from the original on 2012-x-16. Retrieved 2011-05-10 .
73. ^ Liebowitz, S. J.; Stephen E. Margolis (1990). "The Legend of the Keys". Journal of Constabulary & Economics. The University of Chicago. XXXIII (Apr 1990): 1. doi:10.1086/467198. S2CID 14262869. Archived from the original on 2008-07-03. Retrieved 2008-06-18 . This article examines the history, economics, and ergonomics of the typewriter keyboard. We show that David's version of the history of the market's rejection of Dvorak does not written report the true history, and we present prove that the continued apply of Qwerty is efficient given the electric current understanding of keyboard design.
74. ^ Kroemer, Karl H.Eastward (2014), "Keyboards and keying an annotated bibliography of the literature from 1878 to 1999", Universal Access in the Data Club, i (two): 99–160, doi:ten.1007/s102090100012, S2CID 207064170
75. ^ David, P. A. (1986). "Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: the Necessity of History". In Parker, William N., Economical History and the Modern Economist. Basil Blackwell, New York and Oxford.
76. ^ "Instructions for Using the Blickensderfer Typewriter". Archived from the original on 2014-02-21. Retrieved 2014-01-03 .
77. ^ ANSI INCITS 154-1988 (R1999) Role Machines and Supplies - Alphanumeric Machines - Keyboard Arrangement (formerly ANSI X3.154-1988 (R1999)) (retrieved 2012-07-04)
78. ^ Bringhurst, Robert (2004). The elements of typographic manner (tertiary ed.). Hartley & Marks, Publishers. p. 80. ISBN978-0-88179-206-five . Retrieved 10 Nov 2020. In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset certificate are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer volition employ an em dash, three-quarter em, or en nuance, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, notwithstanding prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is likewise long for apply with the best text faces. Like the oversized space betwixt sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.
79. ^ Upper and Lower Case Mag. "U&lc Online Issue 41.one.1: Pinnacle Ten Blazon Crimes". Retrieved 23 March 2010.
80. ^ Williams, Robin (2003). The Mac is not a typewriter: A manner manual for creating professional person-level type on your Macintosh (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: Peachpit Printing. ISBN978-0-201-78263-9.
81. ^ Felici, James (2003). The Complete Transmission of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type. Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. p. lxxx. ISBN978-0-321-12730-3.
82. ^ Rosendorf, Theodore (2009). The Typographic Desk Reference (1st ed.). New Castle, Delaware. ISBN978-1-58456-231-3. ; Upper and Lower Example Mag. "U&lc Online Issue 41.i.1: Top X Type Crimes". Retrieved 23 March 2010. ; Strizver, Ilene (2010). Type Rules: The Designer'due south Guide to Professional Typography (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 199. ISBN978-0-470-54251-4. . Strizver states that "When available, true primes should be used for measurements, but typewriter quotes (not smart quotes) have become the accepted practice in digital typography."
83. ^ Regents of the University of Minnesota (18 July 2007). "University of Minnesota Manner Transmission". University of Minnesota. Regents of the University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2010. This topic is discussed under "Creating Professional-looking Text."; Williams 2003. pps. 31, 33. Another example of the limitation of the typewriter in regard to underlining, was the necessity to underline the titles of books and stand-lone works in Bibliographies—works that would otherwise have been italicized, if that adequacy existed on the typewriter.
84. ^ Truss, Lynn (2004). Eats, Shoot & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. New York: Gotham Books. p. 135. ISBN978-1-59240-087-4.
85. ^ "1876 Sholes, Gidden, Soule invention". Archived from the original on xiv December 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
86. ^ Boyer, Kate, and Kim England. "Gender, Work and Technology in the Data Workplace: From Typewriters to ATMs." Social & Cultural Geography 9.3 (2008): 241–256. Spider web.
87. ^ Waller, Robert A. "WOMEN AND THE TYPEWRITER DURING THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS, 1873–1923". Studies in Popular Culture ix.1 (1986): 39–50. Web.
88. ^ "Prescript on the Press". Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. 2015-08-25. Retrieved 2019-12-09 .
89. ^ KULA: knowledge creation, dissemination, and preservation studies. 2017. OCLC 1126556820.
90. ^ Bolintineanu, Alexandra; Thirugnanasampanthan, Jaya (2018-11-29). "The Typewriter Under the Bed: Introducing Digital Humanities through Banned Books and Endangered Knowledge". KULA: Knowledge Cosmos, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies. 2 (1): 22. doi:10.5334/kula.30. ISSN 2398-4112.
91. ^ Aleeva, Ekaterina (2017-07-x). "Samizdat: How did people in the Soviet Spousal relationship circumvent state censorship". www.rbth.com . Retrieved 2019-12-09 .
92. ^ "The First Typewriter". Rehr, Darryl. Archived from the original on 2009-02-01. Retrieved 2009-02-16 .
93. ^ Wershler-Henry, Darren Sean (2007). The Iron Whim: A Fragmented History of Typewriting. Cornell University Press. ISBN978-0-8014-4586-6.
94. ^ Carpenter, Humphrey (1978). J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography, Unwin Paperbacks p.207. ISBN 0 04 928039 2
95. ^ "JACK KEROUAC on THE STEVE ALLEN SHOW with Steve Allen 1959". YouTube.
96. ^ Foster, Edward H., Richard Brautigan, Twayne 1983.
97. ^ A Bruin Birthday Tribute To Ray Bradbury Tweet (August 22, 2010). "Offset Spark: Ray Bradbury Turns 90; The Universe and UCLA University Gloat". Spotlight.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on October 5, 2011. Retrieved September 30, 2011.
98. ^ Revolution, The Typewriter. "A Typist's Companion for the 21st Century". The Typewriter Revolution.
99. ^ "Blog archive". Archived from the original on 2007-ten-21. Retrieved 2008-10-23 .
100. ^ "Harlan Ellison Webderland: Interview". Harlanellison.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2012-03-thirty .
101. ^ Kennedy, Randy (2009-12-04). "Cormac McCarthy'due south Typewriter Brings $254,500 at Auction – ArtsBeat Blog – NYTimes.com". Artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 2011-05-28. Retrieved 2010-01-eleven .
102. ^ Patricia Cohen (November 30, 2009). "No Land for Old Typewriters: A Well-Used Ane Heads to Auction". New York Times. Archived from the original on September four, 2014.
103. ^ ^{a b c} Joiner, James (eleven September 2013). "The Subconscious World of the Typewriter". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
104. ^ "Why typewriters beat computers". BBC News. 2008-05-30. Archived from the original on 2017-08-04.
105. ^ Hanks, Tom. "I Am TOM. I Like to TYPE. Hear That?". Retrieved March ix, 2020.
106. ^ "IMSLP16532-Satie_-_Parade_(orch._score).pdf" (PDF). International Music Score Library Project.
107. ^ Hurley, Sean. "Boston Orchestra Makes Typewriters Sing". NPR.org. National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2012-03-16 .
108. ^ "The Boston Typewriter Orchestra". Wordpress. Archived from the original on 2012-04-04. Retrieved 2012-03-16 .
109. ^ "Condign Typewriter : Ryu Hankil : Free Download & Streaming : Cyberspace Archive". 2001-03-x. Retrieved 2013-09-12 .
110. ^ Dehn, Georgia (27 May 2013). "Déborah François interview for Populaire: 'Acting felt similar a fantasy'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-eleven. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
111. ^ ^{a b c} Kelly, Mary Westward. (2006). "Typewriters". Scientific Exam of Questioned Documents, Second Edition (Forensic and Constabulary Science Series) (second ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. 177–189. ISBN978-0-8493-2044-6.
112. ^ Haas, Josef. (1972), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, PICA".
113. ^ Haas, Josef and Bernhard Haas. (1985), "ATLAS der Schreibmaschinenschrift, Non-PICA".
114. ^ Bouffard, P.D. (1992), A PC-Based Typewriter Typestyle Nomenclature Organisation Standard, presented at the American University of Forensic Sciences meeting, New Orleans, LA.
115. ^ Hodgins, Cpl. J.H. (January 1963). "A Punchcard System for Identification of Typescript". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 8 (1): 68–81.
116. ^ Interpol (1969) "System for Identification of Typewriter Makes Using the Card Index", ICPO-Interpol
117. ^ ^{a b} Crown, David A. (March 1967). "Landmarks in Typewriting Identification". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police force Science. 58 (1): 105–111. doi:10.2307/1141378. JSTOR 1141378. The earliest known reference to the identification potential of typewriting, curiously enough, appears in 'A Case of Identity', a Sherlock Holmes story by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle...
118. ^ Hagan, William Eastward. (1894). "Chapter 8". Disputed Handwriting. Albany, NY: Banks & Brothers. p. 203.
119. ^ Osborn, Albert South. (1908). "Typewriting as Evidence". Rochester, NY: The Genesee Printing: 23.
120. ^ Osborn, Albert South. (1973) [1929]. "Questioned Typewriting". Questioned Documents (2nd ed.). Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. p. 1042. ISBN978-0-87585-207-2.
121. ^ ASTM International Archived 2006-03-31 at the Wayback Car, These guides are nether the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E30 on Forensic Sciences and the directly responsibility of Subcommittee E30.02 on Questioned Documents. Copies of ASTM Standards can be obtained straight from ASTM International.
122. ^ Betea, Lavinia (February thirteen, 2009). "La Miliţie cu maşina de scris" (in Romanian). jurnalul.ro. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved August 24, 2014.
123. ^ Ways, Marking (October 28, 2021). "10 Typewriter Museums You Should Visit". Typing Lounge . Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
124. ^ "[Homepage]". Typewritermuseum . Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
125. ^ "[Homepage]". Museo della macchina da scrivere (in Italian). Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
126. ^ "Antiquarian Typewriters - The Martin Howard Collection". Antique Typewriters . Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
127. ^ "[Homepage]". Musée de la machine à écrire (in French). Perrier Machines de Bureau, Lausanne. Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
128. ^ Robert, Paul. "The Virtual Typewriter Museum". Retrieved 2022-01-23 .
129. ^ "Typewriter Museum". www.mrmartinweb.com . Retrieved 2022-01-23 .

Patents [edit]

• US79265 – Improvement in Type-Writing Machines (the patent that laid the basis for the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer)
• US349026 – typewriter ribbon, by George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee.

Further reading [edit]

• Adler, M.H. (1973). The Writing Motorcar: A History of the Typewriter. Allen and Unwin.
• Beeching, Wilfred A. (1974). Century of the Typewriter. St. Martin'due south Printing. pp. 276 Beeching was the Director of the British Typewriter Museum.

External links [edit]

Wait up typewriter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Typewriter.

• The Eclectisaurus online Museum of Typewriters by manufacturers from Adler to Voss.
• Virtually Definitely My Blazon Video showcasing historical typewriters, with soundtrack past Boston Typewriter Orchestra
• Oliveira Typewriter (em português)
• Antique Typewriter Collecting, History & Resources for the Collector
• Early on Typewriter Collectors' Association
• The Classic Typewriter Page
• Typewriter: Gratuitous Minimal Text Editing Software the Behaves like a Typewriter

Revival [edit]

• Richard Polt, The Typewriter Revolution: A Typist'south Companion for the 21st Century
• Ding, click clack -- typewriter is back—Quad-Metropolis Times, May 18, 2009
• Typewriters feel a comeback – UPI.com—United Press International, Dec. 19, 2011
• Documentary Film -- The Typewriter (In the 21st Century)—2012
• Kremlin returns to typewriters to avert computer leaks—The Daily Telegraph, July xi, 2013
• Germany 'may revert to typewriters' to counter hi-tech espionage—The Guardian, July 15, 2014

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter

Posted by: thompsongreirrom.blogspot.com

Share this post